Applications of Biotechnology

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.

For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons.

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:
Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale."[7] Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.

Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.

Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby eliminating the need for external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.

Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genomic manipulation.

White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.
The investments and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies form what has been described as the bioeconomy.

Medicine
In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as
drug production;
pharmacogenomics;
gene therapy; and
genetic testing;

Pharmacogenomics

DNA Microarray chip -- Some can do as many as a million blood tests at once
Main article: Pharmacogenomics

Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body’s response to drugs. It is a coined word derived from the words “pharmacology” and “genomics”. It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup.[8]

Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:[8]
Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.

More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.

Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process.

Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once

sumber : http://www.wikipedia.org

Applications of Biotechnology

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.

For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons.

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:
Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale."[7] Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.

Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.

Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby eliminating the need for external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.

Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genomic manipulation.

White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.
The investments and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies form what has been described as the bioeconomy.

Medicine
In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as
drug production;
pharmacogenomics;
gene therapy; and
genetic testing;

Pharmacogenomics

DNA Microarray chip -- Some can do as many as a million blood tests at once
Main article: Pharmacogenomics

Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body’s response to drugs. It is a coined word derived from the words “pharmacology” and “genomics”. It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup.[8]

Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:[8]
Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.

More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.

Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process.

Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once

sumber : http://www.wikipedia.com

History of Biotechnology

Although not normally thought of as biotechnology, agriculture clearly fits the broad definition of "using a biological system to make products" such that the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise. Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution.

The processes and methods of agriculture have been refined by other mechanical and biological sciences since its inception. Through early biotechnology, farmers were able to select the best suited and highest-yield crops to produce enough food to support a growing population. Other uses of biotechnology were required as crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain.

Specific organisms and organism by-products were used to fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control pests. Throughout the use of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and breeding them with other plants--one of the first forms of biotechnology. Cultures such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India developed the process of brewing beer. It is still done by the same basic method of using malted grains (containing enzymes) to convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process the carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol. Ancient Indians also used the juices of the plant Ephedra vulgaris and used to call it Soma. Later other cultures produced the process of Lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur’s work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.

Combinations of plants and other organisms were used as medications in many early civilizations. Since as early as 200 BC, people began to use disabled or minute amounts of infectious agents to immunize themselves against infections. These and similar processes have been refined in modern medicine and have led to many developments such as antibiotics, vaccines, and other methods of fighting sickness.

In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using Clostridium acetobutylicum, to produce acetone, which the United Kingdom desperately needed to manufacture explosives during World War I.[3]

The field of modern biotechnology is thought to have largely begun on June 16, 1980, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically-modified microorganism could be patented in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty.[4] Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty, working for General Electric, had developed a bacterium (derived from the Pseudomonas genus) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills.

Revenue in the industry is expected to grow by 12.9% in 2008. Another factor influencing the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation -- and enforcement -- worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products to cope with an ageing, and ailing, U.S. population.[5]

Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans -- the main inputs into biofuels -- by developing genetically-modified seeds which are resistant to pests and drought. By boosting farm productivity, biotechnology plays a crucial role in ensuring that biofuel production targets are met

Mengelak Utang, Mengobok MSAA

GPA mempermasalahkan ketaatan Salim terhadap MSAA. BPPN juga digugat karena dinilai melakukan pembiaran.

Sejak Oktober tahun lalu, puluhan pengacara rajin sowan ke dua Pengadilan Negeri yang ada di Lampung setiap minggunya. Hajatan para pengacara ini ialah gugatan Garuda Pancaarta (GPA) terhadap pihak yang mewakili lima puluh lima pihak antara lain keluarga Salim, Marubeni Corporation (Marubeni) beserta puluhan pejabat terasnya, Bank Penyehatan Perbankan Nasional (BPPN), sampai Camat setempat.

Dalam gugatan ke Pengadilan Negeri Gunung Sugih, GPA mempermasalahkan sejumlah utang dan jaminan empat perusahaan gula milik GPA kepada Marubeni. Pada 2001, GPA membeli saham eks Salim di empat perusahaan tergabung dalam Sugar Group Companies (SGC) dari BPPN seharga Rp 1,1 triliun. GPA tidak menerima saat Marubeni Corporation menagih piutang mereka terhadap SGC pertengahan 2006 lalu. Gugatan yang diajukan ke Pengadilan Negeri Kota Bumi juga serupa, hanya soal perbedaan letak tanah dan pabrik yang dibebankan jaminan.

GPA meminta hakim membatalkan 29 perjanjian utang-piutang dan jaminan-jaminannya antara Salim, Marubeni, dan pihak terkait. Selain itu mereka juga meminta ganti rugi baik materiili maupun immateril bernilai 1,2 miliar dolar Amerika Serikat.

Salim dinilai GPA telah melanggar PP No. 21 Tahun 1999 tentang Badan Penyehatan Perbankan Nasional (BPPN), serta Master Settlement and Acquisition Agreement (MSAA), perjanjian perdamaian antara Salim dengan BPPN. Pelanggaran ini berupa tindakan berutang dan penjaminan aset oleh SGC ke Marubeni, saat Salim seharusnya mempersiapkan SGC untuk diserahkan ke BPPN.

Syahdan, Salim menyerahkan kepemilikan saham di 108 perusahaan kepada BPPN, termasuk SGC, untuk menyelesaikan utang sebesar Rp 54 triliun, sebagaimana disepakati dalam MSAA. Dalam perjanjian tersebut, saham Salim di 108 perusahaan akan diserahkan sebagai ganti atas kucuran dana dari Bank Indonesia yang diterima Bank BCA yang saat itu milik Salim. Ke-108 perusahaan ini kemudian dikelola PT Holdiko Perkasa yang dikendalikan BPPN.

Atas pembayaran sebesar Rp 823,9 miliar dan penyerahan saham 108 perusahan BPPN telah mengeluarkan surat keterangan lunas pada 11 Maret 2004. Selain itu, sebagaimana disebutkan dalam jawaban Salim, BPPN juga telah mengeluarkan surat pada 30 Juni 1999 dan 30 Juli 1999, yang menyatakan seluruh kewajiban telah terselesaikan secara penuh (Release & Discharge).

Kuasa hukum GPA Hotman Paris Hutapea menyatakan, Salim melanggar MSAA yang mensyaratkan aset-aset SGC tersebut bersih dari beban seperti hak tanggungan dan fidusia. Malahan menurutnya, setelah MSAA dengan pemerintah di teken, SGC menjaminkan aset perusahaannya. Ia juga mensinyalir kerugian negara dari lelang.

Perry Cornelius, kuasa Salim dari kantor Lubis, Sentosa & Maulana balik menyerang. Ia mempertanyakan urusan GPA mengobok-ngobok MSAA Salim dengan BPPN. “Kalau Hotman membawa kasus ini ke MSAA dan BLBI, terlalu jauh,” cetus advokat muda ini.

Menurutnya, MSAA adalah perjanjian perdata murni antara pemerintah dengan obligor yang menandatangani MSAA. Jika perjaniian sifatnya seperti itu, lanjut Perry, maka pihak ketiga tidak dapat mengganggu gugat. “GPA bukanlah pihak. Sekarang dia meributkan sesuatu yang sudah disepakati antara pemerintah dengan obligor (Salim, red),” kata dia. Gugatan ini menurut Perry hanya strategi untuk menghindari pembayaran utangnya ke Marubeni.

Harus bersihkan Aset?
Menurut Hotman, pembersihan beban adalah janji yang tidak dipenuhi oleh Salim, tapi entah kenapa tetap dimaklumkan oleh BPPN. Kepada Hukumonline, Hotman mengakui GPA sudah mengetahui adanya utang dan jaminan-jaminan saat membeli saham dari BPPN melalui lelang saat membeli saham itu dari BPPN. “Sekalipun tahu, namanya melanggar hukum ya melanggar hukum,” tandasnya. Ada jaminan-jaminan ilegal yang kemudian diserahkan.

Hotman beralasan mereka diam saja karena GPA tidak mengetahui isi MSAA, dan kewajiban membersihkan aset dari lien/beban, sesuai Pasal 8.5 MSAA.


MSAA antara BPPN dan Salim
GPA memutuskan menggugat, setelah mengetahui MSAA yang mewajibkan Salim membersihkan lien (beban, jaminan,dsb) perusahaannya sebelum closing date, dan tidak dilakukan oleh Salim.

8.5 Release of Liens by the Shareholders. On or before any closing at which Acquisition Shares (saham-saham Salim di 108 perusahaan) are transferred to CJ Holdco (kemudian menjadi PT Holdiko), the Shareholders (Salim) and their Related Persons shall have released or caused to be released all Liens, if any, over such Acquisition Shares and/or any properties or assets of the relevant Acquisition Company (Perusahaan yang sahamnya dimiliki Salim)

Lien shall mean (i) any Hak tanggungan, mortgage, security right deed, fiduciary transfer, pledge, lien, charge, lease... or other encumberance of any kind.


Meski ada Pasal 8.5 yang mensyaratkan klien harus bersih, Perry mendalilkan bahwa sebelum 8.5, ketentuan Pasal 8 memberikan kemungkinan untuk mengesampingkan keharusan penghapusan lien, yakni dengan adanya persetujuan BPPN, dan ada kata-kata “unless waived in writing by BPPN”. Apalagi pernah ada surat keterangan lunas dan surat Release and Discharge. “Pemerintah sudah tidak keberatan atas isi perjanjian” tandasnya.

8. Conditions to BPPN’s Obligation Notwithstanding the execution and delivery of this Agreement or the performance of any part thereof, the obligation of BPPN to complete any transaction contemplated herein, including the discharge of any Liquidity Security or Liquidity Support... shall be subject to the satisfaction, on or before the relevant Closing date for such transaction, of each of the following condition, unless waived in writing by BPPN.

Perry menambahkan, dalam MSAA juga jelas disebutkan bahwa perusahaan yang dijual berupa saham. Artinya, kalau terdapat utang piutang di dalam perusahaan itu, maka yang bertanggungjawab adalah pembeli. Amandemen terhadap MSAA, kata Perry juga dilakukan berulang kali, termasuk di dalamnya masalah pembersihan lien yang dipermasalahkan GPA. ”Dikasus ini orang (GPA-red) ngutang nggak bayar gitulah sederhananya” pungkasnya

sumber : http://www.hukumonline.com

Tuntutan Ayunda Mirip Klausul Injunction Pesanan Billy Sindoro

Astro minta pengadilan mengeluarkan putusan sela untuk menghentikan pemeriksaan gugatan perdata PT Ayunda Prima Mitra. Alasannya, sengketa itu sedang diselesaikan forum arbitrase di Singapura. Ayunda menilai forum arbitrase tidak dapat dipakai sebagai rujukan.

Sidang perdana gugatan PT Ayunda Prima Mitra terhadap Astro All Asia Networks Plc mulai digelar Pengadilan Negeri Jakarta Selatan, Selasa (03/3). Dalam gugatannya, Ayunda menuduh Astro dan anak perusahaannya telah melakukan perbuatan melanggar hukum terhadap Ayunda dan PT Direct Vision. Oleh karena itu Ayunda meminta pengadilan untuk memerintahkan Astro supaya tidak menghentikan pelayanannya kepada Direct Vision.

Tuntutan Ayunda tersebut dipertanyakan kuasa hukum Astro, Todung Mulya Lubis. Sebab, sejumlah gugatan terhadap Astro yang didaftarkan di beberapa pengadilan memiliki persamaan isi tuntutan. Menurutnya, seluruh kasus memiliki tujuan sama, yaitu mencegah Astro menghentikan layanan kepada Direct Vision, perusahaan yang seluruh sahamnya dimiliki Grup Lippo.

Apalagi, kata Todung, pihaknya menemukan adanya tuntutan provisi dalam gugatan yang sama dengan kalimat yang tercantum pada diktum nomor 5 putusan Komisi Pengawas Persaingan Usaha (KPPU) dalam kasus Liga Inggris. Diktum itu diduga merupakan pesanan mantan Presiden Direktur PT First Media Tbk Billy Sindoro kepada Anggota KPPU Mohammad Iqbal. Billy sendiri sudah diputus bersalah dan dihukum tiga tahun penjara oleh Pengadilan Tindak Pidana Korupsi.

Tuntutan yang sama juga ditemukan pada gugatan class action (perwakilan kelas) terhadap Astro di sejumlah pengadilan. Menurut Todung, diktum nomor 5 putusan KPPU atau gugatan perdata serta gugatan class action terhadap Astro, memiliki satu tujuan, yaitu agar Astro tetap memberikan pasokan isi siaran dan layanan penyiaran kepada Direct Vision. Padahal, lanjut dia, Astro tidak pernah dibayar sepeser pun atas isi siaran dan layanan yang telah diberikan kepada Direct Vision selama lebih dari dua tahun. Astro juga tidak pernah menjadi pemilik saham Direct Vision karena Grup Lippo tidak menyelesaikan rencana joint venture (usaha patungan) di Direct Vision, kata Todung.

Dihubungi terpisah, kuasa hukum Ayunda, Edward N. Lontoh, menolak mengomentari apabila isi tuntutan kliennya disamakan dengan diktum 5 putusan KPPU. Lontoh mengatakan gugatan dilayangkan lantaran Ayunda merasa dirugikan oleh tindakan Astro. Perusahaan televisi asal Malaysia itu juga dianggap melanggar kesepakatan awal dengan Ayunda. “Tolong dihormati kesepakatan itu,” kata Edward.

Pengadilan tidak berwenang
Terlepas dari tuntutan itu, Todung menegaskan bahwa pengadilan di Indonesia tidak berwenang untuk mengadili perkara Ayunda versus Astro tersebut. Alasannya, semua sengketa terkait joint venture antara Astro dan Grup Lippo disepakati untuk diselesaikan di Singapore International Arbitration Center (SIAC)—forum arbitrase di Singapura. “Saat ini gugatan Astro kepada Ayunda, Direct Vision dan First Media terkati joint venture sedang dalam proses pemeriksaan di SIAC,” kata Todung.

Untuk itu, Todung meminta hakim mengeluarkan putusan sela yang menyatakan bahwa Pengadilan Negeri Jakarta Selatan tidak berwenang untuk memeriksa dan mengadili perkara ini.

Berbeda dengan Todung, Edward justru menganggap forum arbitrase tidak layak untuk menyelesaikan sengketa Astro versus Ayunda. Pasalnya perjanjian awal diantara kedua korporasi beserta anak perusahaannya sudah tidak berlaku lagi. Apalagi, lanjutnya, gugatan Ayunda di Pengadilan Negeri Jakarta Selatan dilayangkan lebih dulu ketimbang gugatan Astro di forum arbitrase Singapura.

Sekedar informasi, gugatan Ayunda di Jakarta Selatan didaftarkan bulan September 2008 sedangkan gugatan Astro di arbitrase diajukan bulan Oktober 2008. “Secara logika hukum, gugat arbitrase harus menunggu selesainya gugatan di Jakarta Selatan,” kata Edward yang enggan mengomentari lebih jauh tentang gugatan Astro di forum arbitrase Singapura.

Mengenai tanggung jawab terhadap pelanggan, baik Todung maupun Edward saling lempar tanggung jawab. Menurut Todung, ganti rugi merupakan kewajiban dari Direct Vision, sebagai pemilik Ayunda dan Silver Concord Holdings Ltd. Sedangkan Edward menyatakan masalah itu merupakan tanggung jawab Astro

sumber : http://www.hukumonline.com